How to Teach Vocabulary – From Theory to Practice

How to Teach Vocabulary

This article explores how to teach vocabulary, combining theoretical insights with practical strategies. It is divided into two main sections:

1. Theoretical background about vocabulary learning.
2. Pedagogical implications for teaching vocabulary effectively.

The ideas presented here are inspired by Scott Thornbury’s seminal book, How to Teach Vocabulary (2002), along with other key references (see below).

>>>Check also this post about vocabulary teaching!<<<

Theoretical Background

According to Vygotsky, “A word is a microcosm of human consciousness.” Language shapes thought, influences cognition, and reflects cultural connotations. Vocabulary, therefore, is not just about definitions but also about how words fit into the world.

1. Importance of Vocabulary

As David Wilkins famously said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed; without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed.” When traveling to a foreign country, you’re more likely to carry a dictionary than a grammar book. This underscores the importance of vocabulary in communication.

2. Vocabulary Knowledge

Vocabulary knowledge goes beyond memorizing definitions. Steven Stahl (2005) explains that knowing a word involves understanding its form, meaning, connotations, collocations, and place within a network of related words.

Making connections between form and meaning is only one side of the coin. The other side is to be able to produce language using the correct form of a word in the appropriate context and for the meaning intended. In other words, knowing a word means knowing its form, its meaning, its connotations, how it collocates with other words, and how it fits within a whole network of meanings.

3. What is Vocabulary?

At its core, vocabulary is defined as the “body of words used in a particular language.” However, this definition raises an important question: What exactly constitutes a “body of words”? To understand this better, let’s analyze a sentence cited by Scott Thornbury (2002):

“I like looking for bits and pieces like second-hand record players and doing them up to look like new.”

How many vocabulary items are in this sentence? Is it twenty? Ninety? Or fewer? The answer depends on how we define a “vocabulary item.” Should we count each word individually, or should we consider groups of words that function as single units of meaning?

For example:

• second-hand
• record player
• do something up
• bits and pieces
• look for

These examples are not just individual words but discrete units of meaning. Take the idiom “bits and pieces”—it’s a fixed expression. You can’t rearrange it to “pieces and bits” without losing its meaning. Similarly, the phrasal verb “look for” functions as a single unit, even though it consists of two words.

Now, consider the word “like” in the same sentence. It appears twice, but with entirely different meanings:

1. “I like looking for bits and pieces” – Here, like is a verb.
2. “…to look like new.” – Here, like is a preposition.

This demonstrates how a single word can have multiple meanings depending on its context.

Let’s take another example: the word “keep.” According to the Longman Dictionary, keep is a versatile word with multiple meanings and uses:

• As a verb, it has 19 distinct meanings, such as to store, to retain, to have a supply, and to have charge of.
• When combined with particles, it forms phrasal verbs like keep up, keep off, and keep at.
• As a noun, it has two meanings: “she is in my keep for the day” and “earn one’s keep.”
• It also appears in numerous collocations, such as:
  • keep a diary
  • keep a promise
  • keep a secret
  • keep calm
  • keep in touch
  • keep quiet
  • keep someone’s place
  • keep the change

4. From Words to Lexis

This complexity shows that vocabulary is not just about individual words but also about how words combine to create meaning. Vocabulary includes:

• Single words (e.g., book, pen)
• Compound words (e.g., record player)
• Multi-word units (e.g., by the way, out of the blue)
• Collocations (e.g., break a record, set a record)

In essence, vocabulary is a dynamic and interconnected system of words and phrases that work together to convey meaning. Understanding this complexity is key to teaching vocabulary effectively and helping learners build robust vocabulary knowledge.

5. Words in Relation to Other Words

Words don’t exist in isolation; they are interconnected in various ways, forming a rich network of meanings. Understanding these relationships is crucial for mastering vocabulary. Let’s explore the key ways words relate to one another:

A. Synonyms vs. Antonyms

• Synonyms are words that share similar meanings. For example:
  • old, ancient, elderly, aged, antique
    However, synonyms aren’t always interchangeable. For instance:
  • You can describe a city as old or ancient, but you wouldn’t call a car elderly.
• Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. For example:
  • Old is the antonym of new and young.
    However, context matters:
  • The opposite of an old man is a young man, but the opposite of an old city is a new city, not a young city.

B. Homonyms vs. Polysemes

• Homonyms are words that share the same form but have unrelated meanings. For example:
  • I like looking for… (verb) vs. It looks like new. (preposition)
  • Go to the fair. (a place) vs. It’s a fair price. (reasonable)
• Polysemes are words with multiple, related meanings. For example:
  • The house is at the foot of the mountains. (base)
  • One of his shoes felt too tight for his foot. (body part)

C. Hyponyms vs. Superordinate Terms

• A superordinate term is an umbrella category that includes more specific words.
• Hyponyms are the specific words that fall under a superordinate term. For example:
  • The superordinate term tools includes hyponyms like hammer, screwdriver, and saw.
  • The word saw itself can act as a superordinate term for fretsaw, chainsaw, and jigsaw, which are all co-hyponyms.

This hierarchical relationship helps learners categorize and expand their vocabulary systematically.

D. Content Words vs. Function Words

• Content words carry meaning and include:
  • Nouns (e.g., house, computer)
  • Verbs (e.g., play, run)
  • Adjectives (e.g., enjoyable, beautiful)
  • Adverbs (e.g., quickly, quietly)
• Function words are essential for grammar and include:
  • Pronouns (e.g., he, they)
  • Determiners (e.g., the, this)
  • Prepositions (e.g., in, on)

While content words convey the main idea, function words provide structure and clarity to sentences.

E. Receptive vs. Productive Words

As Scott Thornbury (2002) notes, “We understand more words than we utter.” This distinction is key to vocabulary knowledge:

• Receptive vocabulary includes words learners recognize and understand but may not use actively.
• Productive vocabulary includes words learners can confidently use in speaking or writing.

For example, a learner might understand the word elaborate (receptive) but prefer to use explain in their own speech (productive).

F. True vs. False Cognates

Cognates are words in different languages that share a common origin. They can be helpful or misleading:

• True cognates (or vrais amis) have similar meanings across languages. For example:
  • English: Family → French: Famille
  • English: Gratitude → French: Gratitude
• False cognates (or faux amis) look similar but have different meanings. For example:
  • English: Actually → French: Actuellement (which means currently)
  • English: Coin → French: Coin (which means corner)

Here’s a quick comparison:

Cognates	False	True
Family		√
Actually	√
Gratitude		√
Information		√
Attend	√
Coin	√

By exploring these relationships, teachers can create engaging activities that deepen learners’ vocabulary knowledge and foster a more intuitive grasp of language.

6. How Vocabulary Knowledge is Organized

According to Scott Thornbury (2002), the mind doesn’t store words randomly or as a simple list. Instead, vocabulary is organized in a highly structured and interconnected way, forming what is known as the mental lexicon. Think of it as a vast, intricate network where words are linked by meaning, usage, and context.

A. Vocabulary Learning as Network-Building

Learning vocabulary is like constructing a network. It begins with labeling individual items and gradually progresses to categorizing them into broader groups. This process mirrors how babies acquire their first language. For example:

1. A baby sees a dog and learns to label it as “dog.”
2. The baby then learns to label a cat as “cat” and a horse as “horse.”
3. Over time, the baby groups these labels under a superordinate term like “animals.”

This same process applies to second language learners. They start by learning individual words and then connect them to related terms, building a web of vocabulary knowledge.

B. The Importance of a Robust Vocabulary Network

For foreign or second language learners, building a large and well-organized vocabulary network is essential for effective communication. Research suggests that learners need to know at least 2,000 high-frequency words to engage in everyday conversations.

However, constructing this network comes with challenges:

1. New Words Are Constantly Created: Languages evolve, and new words are continually added (e.g., selfie, blog).
2. Old Words Acquire New Meanings: Existing words often take on new meanings over time (e.g., mouse once referred only to an animal, but now also means a computer device).

These challenges highlight the dynamic nature of vocabulary and the need for learners to continuously update and expand their mental lexicon.

C. Implications for Teaching Vocabulary

To help learners build and maintain their vocabulary networks, teachers should:

• Focus on high-frequency words that are most useful for communication.
• Teach words in context, showing how they relate to other words (e.g., synonyms, antonyms, collocations).
• Encourage learners to categorize words and explore their connections.
• Provide opportunities for repeated exposure and practice to reinforce learning.

Understanding how vocabulary is organized helps teachers design strategies that make vocabulary learning more effective and meaningful for their students.

7. How We Learn and Remember Vocabulary

Vocabulary learning is a dynamic process that can happen in two main ways.

A. Incidental Vs. Intentional Vocabulary Learning

a. Incidental Learning

This occurs through indirect exposure to words, such as:

• Reading books, articles, or social media posts.
• Listening to conversations, podcasts, or songs.
• Watching movies or TV shows.

In these contexts, learners pick up new words naturally, often without conscious effort.

b. Intentional Learning

This involves deliberate efforts to learn specific words and strategies, such as:

• Studying word lists or flashcards.
• Using mnemonic devices to remember meanings.
• Practicing word-formation rules (e.g., prefixes and suffixes).
• Engaging in activities like word games or vocabulary exercises.

Both incidental and intentional learning play crucial roles in building a robust vocabulary.

B. How We Remember Words

Memory plays a central role in vocabulary retention. There are three key types of memory involved:

a. Short-Term Memory

• Holds vocabulary items for a few seconds.
• Acts as a temporary storage space for new information.
• For example, when you hear a new word in a conversation, it stays in your short-term memory briefly.

b. Working Memory

• This is where learners actively process and manipulate vocabulary items.
• Activities that engage working memory include:
  • Looking up words in a dictionary.
  • Matching words with synonyms or antonyms.
  • Sequencing or ranking words based on importance.
  • Identifying collocations (e.g., make a decision, take a break).

By working with words in meaningful ways, learners move them from short-term to long-term memory.

c. Long-Term Memory

• This is where vocabulary is stored for durable recall.
• Words enter long-term memory through:
  • Repetition: Repeated exposure to words in different contexts.
  • Re-contextualization: Using words in new and varied situations.
  • Personalization: Connecting words to personal experiences or emotions.

For example, if a learner encounters the word “resilient” in a book, hears it in a podcast, and then uses it to describe themselves in a conversation, the word is more likely to be stored in their long-term memory.

Understanding how vocabulary is learned and remembered can help learners and teachers develop more effective strategies for vocabulary acquisition and retention.

Pedagogical Implications for Teaching Vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary effectively requires a strategic approach that helps learners:

1. Acquire a critical mass of words (at least 2,000 high-frequency words) for both understanding and producing language.
2. Remember words over time and recall them easily.
3. Develop independent strategies to learn new vocabulary.

To achieve these goals, vocabulary teaching should be guided by the following 7 Principles of Vocabulary Learning:

7 Principles of Vocabulary Learning

1. Repetition and Multiple Encounters

• What it means: Learners need repeated exposure to words, not just through rote memorization but through varied and meaningful contexts.
• Why it matters: Repetition strengthens memory and helps move words from short-term to long-term storage.
• How to apply:
  • Use the same words in different activities (e.g., reading, writing, speaking).
  • Revisit vocabulary in spaced intervals to reinforce retention.

2. Cognitive Depth

• What it means: Learners should actively engage with words by making decisions about their meanings, uses, and relationships.
• Why it matters: Deep processing enhances understanding and retention.
• How to apply:
  • Activities like matching words with synonyms/antonyms, identifying collocations, or sequencing words.
  • Encourage learners to use dictionaries and analyze word forms (e.g., prefixes, suffixes).

3. Affective Depth

• What it means: Learners should form an emotional or personal connection with words to make them more memorable.
• Why it matters: Words tied to emotions or personal experiences are easier to recall.
• How to apply:
  • Ask learners to choose words they like from a text and use them to write a story or describe a personal experience.
  • Use creative activities like role-playing or storytelling to connect words to feelings or memories.

4. Retrieval

• What it means: The act of recalling words strengthens memory.
• Why it matters: Retrieval practice helps solidify vocabulary in long-term memory.
• How to apply:
  • Use quizzes, flashcards, or quick recall exercises.
  • Encourage learners to use new words in speaking or writing tasks.

5. Re-contextualization

• What it means: Words should be encountered and used in multiple contexts (reading, listening, speaking, writing).
• Why it matters: Seeing words in different contexts deepens understanding and flexibility in usage.
• How to apply:
  • Use the same words in various texts, dialogues, or real-life scenarios.
  • Encourage learners to adapt words to new situations (e.g., using “break a record” in a sports article and a personal achievement story).

6. Personalization (Use It or Lose It)

• What it means: Learners should use new words to express their own thoughts, experiences, or ideas.
• Why it matters: Personalizing vocabulary makes it more relevant and memorable.
• How to apply:
  • Ask learners to write journal entries, stories, or opinions using target words.
  • Encourage them to use new vocabulary in conversations or presentations.

7. Spacing

• What it means: Practice should be distributed over time, with intervals between sessions gradually increasing.
• Why it matters: Spaced repetition prevents forgetting and strengthens long-term retention.
• How to apply:
  • Review vocabulary at increasing intervals (e.g., after 1 day, 3 days, 1 week, etc.).
  • Use tools like flashcards or apps that incorporate spaced repetition algorithms.

Sources of Vocabulary Teaching and Learning

Vocabulary can be acquired from a variety of sources, each playing a unique role in the learning process. Here are the main sources:

1. Textbooks
2. Teachers
3. Learners themselves
4. Word lists
5. Dictionaries
6. Books and short texts

Let’s take a closer look at textbooks, one of the most common and structured sources of vocabulary.

How Textbooks Present Vocabulary

Textbooks typically introduce vocabulary in three main ways:

A. Segregated Vocabulary Sections

These are dedicated sections that focus on specific groups of words, often organized around a theme or category. For example:

• Means of Travel: boat, car, bus, helicopter, plane, bicycle, ship (all co-hyponyms of the superordinate term transportation).
• Weather: hot, cold, warm, rainy, cloudy, foggy (all co-hyponyms of the superordinate term weather).

These sections help learners see relationships between words and build vocabulary systematically.

B. Vocabulary Integrated into Text-Based Activities

Here, vocabulary is taught through reading or listening texts, with activities designed to reinforce understanding and usage. This approach includes:

Pre-Task Activities:

• Pre-teaching vocabulary: Using pictures, simplified definitions, or translations to introduce key words.
• Discussion: Activating prior knowledge by brainstorming or selecting words related to the text’s theme.

While-Task Activities:

• Searching the text for synonyms, antonyms, or hyponyms.
• Matching words to definitions or identifying collocations.

Follow-Up Activities:

• Encouraging learners to react to, comment on, or argue about the text’s topic.
• Using the new vocabulary to discuss personal experiences or write reflections.

This integrated approach ensures that vocabulary is learned in context, making it more meaningful and memorable.

C. Vocabulary Incidentally Learned in Different Tasks

Vocabulary can also be picked up indirectly through various classroom activities, such as:

• Instructions: Understanding words used in task directions.
• Classroom language: Learning words from teacher-student interactions.
• Listening and reading: Encountering new words in audio clips, stories, or articles.
• Grammar terms: Picking up words like verb, noun, or past tense during grammar lessons.
• Functional terms: Learning phrases for inviting, apologizing, or complaining during speaking activities.

Incidental learning helps learners expand their vocabulary naturally, often without explicit instruction.

Stages of Teaching Vocabulary

Teaching vocabulary effectively involves a structured process that helps learners encounter, understand, and use new words confidently. Here’s a breakdown of the key stages:

1. Encountering Vocabulary

This is the initial stage where learners are introduced to new words. There are two main approaches:

• Teacher Presentation: The teacher directly presents vocabulary items, often using tools like pictures, realia (real objects), or definitions.
• Learner Discovery: Learners notice vocabulary items in context, such as through reading a text or listening to a conversation. They infer meaning based on the surrounding language.

This stage sets the foundation for understanding and using the new words.

2. Integrating Vocabulary

Once learners have encountered new words, the next step is to deepen their understanding and help them manipulate the words. This stage involves:

• Understanding: Clarifying the meaning, pronunciation, and usage of the words.
• Manipulating: Engaging in activities like matching words with definitions, identifying synonyms/antonyms, or categorizing words.
• Transferring to Long-Term Memory: Using repetition, context, and meaningful practice to ensure words are stored for long-term recall.

Activities at this stage might include gap-fill exercises, word sorting, or creating sentences with the new vocabulary.

3. Producing Vocabulary

The final stage focuses on helping learners use the new words actively and confidently. This involves:

• Using Words in Novel Situations: Encouraging learners to apply vocabulary in new contexts, such as speaking or writing tasks.
• Personalization: Asking learners to connect words to their own experiences, opinions, or ideas. For example, they might write a story, give a presentation, or participate in a discussion using the target vocabulary.

This stage ensures that learners move from passive recognition to active use, making the vocabulary truly their own.

The Sequence of Vocabulary Presentation

When introducing new vocabulary, teachers can choose between two presentation sequences:

1. First Form, Then Meaning

• What it means: The teacher provides the word (form) in a context, and learners infer its meaning.
• How it works: For example, the teacher writes the word “generous” in a sentence like, “She is generous because she always shares her toys.” Learners deduce the meaning from the context.
• Why it’s useful: This approach encourages learners to develop guessing strategies and become more independent in their learning.

2. First Meaning, Then Form

• What it means: The teacher explains or demonstrates the meaning of a word before introducing its form.
• How it works: For example, the teacher shows a picture of someone sharing toys and explains, “This person is generous.” Then, the word “generous” is introduced.
• When to use: This sequence is helpful when time is limited (e.g., pre-teaching vocabulary before a reading activity) or when teaching a set of related words in isolation.

Which Sequence is Better?

• First Form, Then Meaning: This is often the preferred approach because it encourages learners to discover meaning independently, fostering deeper engagement and retention.
• First Meaning, Then Form: This is useful in specific situations, such as quick pre-teaching or when introducing abstract concepts.

Implementing a Discovery Learning Approach to Teach Vocabulary

Discovery learning is a powerful method for teaching vocabulary, as it encourages learners to actively engage with new words and uncover their meanings. This approach shifts the focus from teacher-led instruction to learner-centered exploration, fostering independence and deeper understanding. Here’s how teachers can implement a discovery learning procedure effectively:

1. Presenting vs. Discovering Vocabulary

Vocabulary can be introduced in two main ways:

• Teacher Presentation: The teacher directly presents words using tools like:
  • Realia (real objects)
  • Pictures
  • Miming (actions or gestures)
  • Definitions
  • Situations
  • Translations
• Learner Discovery: Learners uncover the meaning of words themselves, guided by the teacher. This is often done by contextualizing vocabulary in short texts or real-life scenarios.

Discovery learning is particularly effective because it engages learners in the process of meaning-making, making vocabulary acquisition more memorable and meaningful.

2. Steps for a Guided Discovery Vocabulary Lesson

Here’s a step-by-step guide to implementing a discovery-based vocabulary lesson:

3. Why Discovery Learning Works

• Encourages Active Engagement: Learners are not passive recipients but active participants in the learning process.
• Builds Critical Thinking: Guessing meaning from context develops analytical and inferencing skills.
• Promotes Independence: Learners develop strategies to uncover meaning on their own, which is essential for real-world language use.

The Challenge of Learning Vocabulary and How to Train Learners

As Wilga Rivers famously said, “Vocabulary cannot be taught.” While teachers can guide and support learners, the ultimate responsibility for acquiring vocabulary lies with the learners themselves. Vocabulary learning is a lifelong process, and it comes with unique challenges:

1. Challenges in Vocabulary Learning

1. New Words Are Constantly Created: Languages evolve, and new words are continually added (e.g., selfie, blog).
2. Old Words Acquire New Meanings: Existing words often take on new meanings over time (e.g., mouse once referred only to an animal, but now also means a computer device).
3. The Depth of Words: Words carry cultural, emotional, and contextual nuances that can be difficult to fully grasp.

These challenges highlight the importance of equipping learners with strategies to independently acquire and manage new vocabulary.

2. Why Learner Training is Essential

Learners cannot rely solely on classroom instruction to master vocabulary. To truly internalize and use new words, they need to develop self-directed learning strategies. Training learners to take charge of their vocabulary acquisition empowers them to:

• Expand their vocabulary beyond the classroom.
• Adapt to new words and meanings as they encounter them.
• Build a deeper, more nuanced understanding of words.

4. How to Train Learners to Acquire New Vocabulary

Here are key strategies to help learners become independent and effective vocabulary learners:

A. Guess Meaning from Context

• What it means: Teach learners to use surrounding words, sentences, or situations to infer the meaning of new words.
• How to train:
  • Provide texts with unfamiliar words and guide learners to identify context clues.
  • Use activities like predicting word meanings before looking them up.

B. Use Dictionaries Effectively

• What it means: Learners should know how to use both print and digital dictionaries to find definitions, pronunciations, and usage examples.
• How to train:
  • Teach learners to identify parts of speech, multiple meanings, and collocations in dictionary entries.
  • Introduce learner-friendly dictionaries or apps like Merriam-Webster or Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries.

C. Keep Organized Records

• What it means: Encourage learners to maintain a vocabulary notebook or digital document to record new words, their meanings, and examples.
• How to train:
  • Show learners how to categorize words by theme, part of speech, or usage.
  • Suggest tools like flashcards, apps (e.g., Quizlet), or spreadsheets for tracking vocabulary.

D. Use Mnemonics

• What it means: Mnemonics are memory aids that help learners remember words through associations, imagery, or wordplay.
• How to train:
  • Teach learners to create their own mnemonics. For example, to remember “benevolent” (kind), they might think of “Ben” (a kind person).
  • Use visual aids, rhymes, or acronyms to make words more memorable.

E. Discover Spelling Rules

• What it means: Understanding spelling patterns and rules can help learners decode and remember new words.
• How to train:
  • Teach common prefixes, suffixes, and root words (e.g., un-, -able, -tion).
  • Highlight spelling patterns (e.g., “i before e except after c”).

5. Why These Strategies Matter

By training learners to use these strategies, teachers empower them to:

• Take ownership of their vocabulary learning.
• Adapt to new words and meanings independently.
• Build a robust and lasting vocabulary repertoire.

As Rivers pointed out, vocabulary cannot be taught—it must be learned. By equipping learners with the right tools and strategies, teachers can set them on the path to becoming confident and independent language users

Summary Table

Aspect	Key Points
Importance of Vocabulary	Essential for communication; shapes thought and culture.
What is Vocabulary?	Includes single words, compounds, multi-word units, and collocations.
Word Relationships	Synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, polysemes, hyponyms, and superordinate terms.
Vocabulary Organization	Stored in a mental lexicon as an interconnected network.
Learning and Memory	Incidental vs. intentional learning; short-term, working, and long-term memory.
Principles of Learning	Repetition, cognitive depth, affective depth, retrieval, re-contextualization, personalization, spacing.
Sources of Vocabulary	Textbooks, teachers, learners, books, and texts.
Stages of Teaching	Encountering, integrating, producing.
Discovery Learning	Guessing meaning, integrating through practice, producing through personalization.
Challenges and Training	New words and meanings; strategies like context guessing, dictionary use, mnemonics.

References

• Stahl, S. A. (2005). “Four problems with teaching word meanings (and what to do to make vocabulary an integral part of instruction),” in E. H. Hiebert and M. L. Kamil (eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
• Thornbury, S. (2002). How to teach vocabulary. Harlow: Longman.
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.